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Xwarṣa
General information Xwarṣa is an extinct language :( Phonology Consonants /p b t d ʈ ɖ k g q/ /s z θ ð ʂ ʐ x ħ/ /m n ɳ ŋ/ /v r (l) j w/ Additionally, the clusters /θt ðd/ behave as one consonant. The plosive pairs denoted by /pb td/ et cetera do not seem to actually have any contrastive voicing as is distinct from both and ; the same applies to all other plosives. The fricative pairs /sz θð/ et cetera, on the other had, do seem to have voicing as assimilates to (regressive voicing assimilation is present) Vowels /a ɒ e ə i o u/ /ɑ̃ ɛ̃ ɔ̃ ũ/ <ą ą̂ ę ǫ ǫ̂ ų ų̂> Circumflexes denote long vowels, ogoneks nasal ones. Vowel Lengthening All final vowels lengthen: Grammar Xwarṣa is an ergative-absolutive language. 'Nouns' Nouns in Xwarṣa inflect for several categories: # Number # Case # Definiteness # Noun class # Possession Xwarṣa nouns can be singular ( ), dual ( ) and plural ( ). They can be either definite ( ) or indefinite ( ). They can either belong to the class of edible objects ( ) or inedible objects ( ). They can inflect for one of eight cases: #'Absolutive' ( ) #'Ergative' ( ) #'Dative' ( ) #'Vocative' ( ) #'Instrumental' ( ) #'Vialis' ( ) #'Malefactive' ( ) #'Possessed' ( ) Xwarṣa nouns inflect for the person of an object in their possession, which then takes the possessive case. They can inflect for three persons, with additional variations: #'First' person ## Singular (1 ) ## Dual ### Inclusive (1 ) ### Exclusive (1 ) ## Plural ### Inclusive (1 ) ### Exclusive (1 ) #'Second' person ## Singular (2 ) ## Dual (2 ) ## Plural (2 ) #'Third' person ##'Proximate' ### Singular ( ) ### Dual ( ) ### Plural ( ) ##'Obviate' ### Singular ( ) ### Dual ( ) ### Plural ( ) A Xwarṣa noun looks like this: The root is the bare morphosemantical unit that makes up the word, stripped of all inflections and derivations. Derivational suffixes are added onto the root to form the basic stem. Adding a possession suffix onto the basic stem makes an extended stem. This extended stem receives inflection and becomes a full noun. Edibility is inherent in the root. This same pattern is applied for adjectives which behave most like nouns. 'Possession (+2)' The second noun inflection slot consists of one suffix that marks for the person of the object in the possession of the marked. There is only one set of suffixes that doesn't show edibility: 'Inflection (+3)' The third noun inflection slot consists of only one suffix which conflates the categories of case, number and definiteness. There are two different sets of suffixes depending on whether the noun to be inflected is edible or not. These two sets have some moderate differences: If the extended stem ends and the suffix begins with a vowel, a stem extension consonant is inserted, usually either /k/ or /d/. If the extended stem ends and the suffix begins with a consonant, an echo vowel is inserted whose quality is the same as the last vowel's, but lacking length and nasalisation. 'Adjectives' Adjectives in Xwarṣa behave like nouns except that they have an additional edibility slot and a comparison clitic: 'Edibility (+E)' The edibility slot has one suffix which shows the edibility of the noun with which it agrees. 'Comparison (=4)' The comparison slot has one clitic which most often attaches to the adjective: 'Verbs' Verbs in Xwarṣa inflect for several categories: #Person #Number #Tense #Polarity #Aspect #Mood #Voice Xwarṣa verbs inflect for the person and number of its absolutive argument, which are conflated as such: #'First' person ## Singular (1 ) ## Dual ### Inclusive (1 ) ### Exclusive (1 ) ## Plural ### Inclusive (1 ) ### Exclusive (1 ) #'Second' person ## Singular (2 ) ## Dual (2 ) ## Plural (2 ) #'Third' person ##'Proximate' ### Singular ( ) ### Dual ( ) ### Plural ( ) ##'Obviate' ### Singular ( ) ### Dual ( ) ### Plural ( ) They can be in any of the nine tenses: #'Present' ( ) #'Past' ##'Relative' past ( ) ##'Absolute' past ( ) ##'Immediate' past ( / ) #'Future' ##'Relative' future ( ) ##'Absolute' future ( ) ##'Vespertine' future ( / ) ##'Proximate' future ( ) ##'Distant' future ( ) They can encode for one of four aspects: #'Imperfective' ( ) #'Perfective' ##'Inchoative' ( ) ##'Cessative' ( ) #'Defective' ( ) They can be inflected for one of three moods: #'Indicative' ( ) #'Hypothetical' ( ) #'Imperative' ( ) They can be in one of three voices: #'Medioactive' ( ) #'Antipassive' ( ) #'Reciprocal' ( ) They can be either positive (unglossed) or negative ( ). A Xwarṣa verb looks like this: The root is the bare morphosemantical unit that makes up the word, stripped of all inflections and derivations. Derivational suffixes are added onto the root to form the basic stem. Adding the aspect and mood inflections makes an extended stem. This extended stem receives a conflated suffix onto which voice is attached, forming a full verb. 'Derivation (+1)' 'Aspect (+2)' The second verb slot fits the aspect suffix which also encodes transitivity: Aspect can be ommited, implied or circumstantially marked; the second slot is not obligatory. Usually verbs have an inherited aspect; in that case, no marking is needed 'Mood (+3)' The third verb slot has the mood suffix. It encodes only the grammatical mood of the verb: 'Person, Number, Tense and Polarity (+4)' 'Voice (+5)' The fifth verb slot has the voice suffix: 'Pronouns and Correlatives' Pronouns in Xwarṣa inflect otherwise exactly as nouns. Quantifiers semantically fit together with pronouns although they inflect like adjectives. Pro-adverbs behave like adverbs. : *''anyone, someone, everyone, no one, another one, the same one'' 'Syntax' Xwarṣa is a head-initial, VEA (verb-ergative-absolutive) language. As it is a highly inflected language, it essentially has free word order. It fronts parts of speech to provide emphasis. Adjectives in it come after nouns and adverbs after verbs. 'Equality and Difference' Adjectives of equality, likeness and difference go either with a copula and the preposition "pąn" which takes the dative followed by a noun phrase, or with a subordinator, copula, "pąn" and a dative complement. 'Relative Clauses' Relative clauses function like either adverbs or adjectives on the surface, modifying noun phrases. They are formed using the relative correlatives whose referent is the modified segment in the main clause in which they are embedded. Word order in relative clauses always follows the pattern of "CORRELATIVE-VERB", followed by the other constituents that aren't locked in place. 'Creatives and Adjectives' Verbs of creation (or creatives) such as "to be born", "to be made", "to be written" et cetera can take adjectives in the instrumental as complement (ex. to be born free) to specify the manner or properties intended or realised of the object of creation. Vocabulary Xwarsa/Lexicon Example text *All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. ::Hąbą̂θṣą̂ ikk nąjadą̂ vûxvåŋ pąn jîṭṭiluksǫ̂s jęqǫsǫ̂s. Ḍîką̂ðąndų qęrakôxa jęxwaṭ jaṣ xwetękîsû jîrî... *Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty. Category:Languages Category:August Challenge